Travel And Tourism Entrepreneur

Travel And touristry EntrepreneurIntroduction change of location and touristry rout out be considered as single of the best product linees in the contemporary world. The ever increasing pauperization of touristry and traveling has do this trade low risk and successful because mountain from all told all over the world travel and arrange tours. Moreover, touristry is the just about growing bank line line, and tall revenue generating source for some countries like Malaysia, Thailand, America and Australia. E real bank line is determined feasible or not based on the calculations or the risks in that particular business. When we talk about business of tourism and change of location, very low risk factor is involved. Individual which want to initiate the tourism business with an inhibit level of training and interest rump soften right revenue with minimum recourses. The profit margins in change of location and tourism is commandly high, and it is the most feasi ble business for investors. The history of Travelling and tourism is very old. There argon hints of ancient travelers who travelled across the world. though at that times the recourses were not sufficient. However, in the present day world, with the financial aid of Travelling medium, tourism facilities and technology, the risk factors be minimized. Moreover, the individuals interested in the business merchantman get nigh(a) profit just by organizing and managing a trip plan.Qualities in the Travel and Tourism EntrepreneurTravel and tourism enterpriser ship be based on certain influencing factors. These factors arouse be called the qualities which should be present in a good entrepreneur. Among them are the knowledge, leadership and vigilance skills, the cognisance of new technology, information about the most appealing tourism and Travelling packages and a business sense to argue with the market. Travelling and tourism business is not only about enthronization and re venue. It is more than related to interest and creativity. Interest gives us an opportunity to chirrup inside the effort and creativity give us an edge to organise schedules and Travelling packages for the thickenings. A good entrepreneur leaveing always style for the needs and demands of the customer. Moreover, he exit ever try to adjust his conjure accordingly (Kucherawy, 2002, http//www.gaebler.com/From-Travel-Industry-Job-to-TravelEntrepreneur.htm.). Besides, some(prenominal) successful entrepreneur will be good enough at merchandise. With his business skills, he provide win the police wagon and minds of the client age. In the long run, these clients will come back to him, resulting in the growth of his business. More precisely, a good entrepreneur is a multi masterful individual with the best command on business tactics and the need of the customer. Subsequently, best tourism entrepreneur must have the call for information about they are launched packages in the market. What the competitors are doing and how his/her caller-up tush contend with the deals already present in the market. It is right to say that a Travelling and tourism company has to be very vigilant, cooperative and linked chthonic the supervision of a skilled entrepreneur.Development of Entrepreneurial Enterprises and Signifi put forwardt big FactorsIn order to develop an entrepreneurial enterprise certain initial locomote are highly important. Among them are the inter topic trend of tourism business, local market saturation levels, home runed business do master(prenominal), appropriate modes of marketing, social contacts, awareness about the global changes in the business of Travelling and tourism, the creativity levels piece of music organizing the business deals and the appealing promotional deals (Georgine, 2001, http//www.allbusiness.com/management/780808-1.html).Global Trend of Tourism BusinessThe maiden step in developing an enterprise entrepreneur should h ave deeply observed global trends of tourism. Which country do people prefer to go, and at which rates or packages? Moreover, he should try to re-orientate him/herself accordingly. For instance, the events of Christmas or New Year are the best examples. These festivals are celebrated all over the world. Now a smart entrepreneur should notice the general orientation of traffic, or in another(prenominal) words, where people want to go on Christmas or New Year? Secondly, within the country what are the most probable sights which can be targeted for tourism and Travelling? Moreover, Travelling and tourism unlike many other businesses, is a whole family business. There is no particular time of decline in business. No matter the global economy is decreasing or increasing the individuals travel. The main reason can be the dependency of some countries. There are countries, which rely on the business of Travelling and tourism. Therefore, it is very important to update yourself if you are f unctioning as an entrepreneur of any Travelling enterprise (Smith, 2002 http//www.bplans.com/international_travel_agency_business_plan/executive_summary_fc.com)..Local Market strength LevelsThe local market saturation is one of the prime important elements, which can minimize the business. If in your surrounding in that location are several(prenominal) companies, which are established than it may be weighty to survive. Moreover, to compete with the pre-established company is a difficult task. It becomes harder if your funds are limited. Saturation of business can be categorized into levels. For instance, if you are functioning in a place with companies dealing in travel and tourism, you should go for a targeted domain for better outcomes. It is wrong to target the most famous companies in the initial levels. Moreover, the company should try to focus on the luxuriant study. What other companies (the real competitors not the highly established ones) lack. After a detailed study, we can have an idea that what other companies lack and what are their besotted points. Based on this survey we can establish a run away plan focusing on the flaws which we found in the market. We should focus on the areas of weakness in the market. Moreover, the quality standards and meeting deadlines and arrangement requirements also enhances the reputation of any particular company in case of saturation. If you are initiating a business in a hub, it is important to consider, that if they do not take over the needs and confidence of the client next time he/she will be taking assistance of some other company. Therefore, best should be done to satisfy the customer for the propagation of the business.Targeted Business DomainThe company should focus on the target domain. The targeted business domain should be easy coverable. Moreover, it should be flawless. If you cannot try to win the market dealing in atomic number 63 for instance, you should focus on some other areas which tha t company lacks and with flawless management and attractive packages one can win the trust of the client and furbish up him/ her to be your regular customer. This is important to state that targeted business domain can act as a live source of marketing.Modes of MarketingThe weft of appropriate modes of marketing is very significant factor. In some cases when you are going to target your primary services the selection of appropriate marketing technique can boost the business. For instance, selecting the medium of marketing, based on resources is important. all you select the printing medium, or electronic medium, the decision should be taken according to the resources.Social ContactsSocial contacts also play a vital role in development of a business. The contacts with the business community and clients can act like an effective marketing tool. Moreover, the social contacts can also assist in generating several resources regarding the promotion of business.Awareness about the glo bal changes in the business of Travelling and tourismSome regional accidents or terrorist attacks sometimes, influence the Travelling business. The extent of business decrease within no time and the tourism industry may collapse. However, with the alteration in targeted sites can be helpful to sustain the business. For instance after the attacks of 9/11, any tourism company should re-orientate its services to some other sites like national tourism or to the sites which are safe for travelers and tourists.Appealing Promotional PackagesThe promotional packages all for tourism if remain successful to cracking the attention of the client age, can boost the business. The attractive Travelling packages along with best facilities can be a vital tool for an entrepreneur to run the business even in hard conditions. Therefore, it is very important to organize the tourism packages based on the requirements of the tourists. Moreover, it is the duty of a successful entrepreneur to insure the best quality to the clients.Business Start-Up PlanThere are several significant steps involved in starting a business. The foremost step prior to establish any business is the feasibility opus for this project. One should determine initially that either this business is competent or not in the feeler times. The detail of major(ip) steps is apt(p) as under market reconnaissance and feasibility analysis.Market reconnaissance and feasibility analysisThese steps are taken before the ecesis of the business and are considered the most significant elements of an effective business plan. These steps deal with detailed investigation of the existing business and the selection of suitable initial components. In the instance, these steps may involve the name of the Travelling agency, selection of place, distance from the main hub, products and services other companies are giving, drawbacks in the enterprises we will be dealing with in the future and many more like that (Lohr, 2002, http//w ww.myownbusiness.org/s2/)..Financial Analysis and Capital CalculationEvery business needs some initial capital to start up business. It should be determined earlier whatthe size of business should be and all that will be dealt with. For big business we need big financial obligate and vice versa. The approximated values and calculations about the size of the business and the field we will be dealing in must be calculated earlier. The succeeding step deals with the financial arrangements. It is preferable to initiate the business with less or no financial support which is interest based. However, subsequent the calculations of site, members, and services, the financial arrangements should be taken into account. Investments should be welcomed and investors are guaranteed success. Moreover, they should be satisfied that investing in their company is the best investment opportunity (Bellis, 2010, http//inventors.about.com/od/businessplans/a/business_plan.htm).. agendum of the CompanyTh e agendum of the company is the main element which boosts the business. The agenda is an accrual of aims and objectives along with the success targets. The agenda should be very clear and appealing for investors who want to invest in the company. Moreover, the agenda is the backbone of any business. In case of tourism and Travelling agency, the importance of agenda cannot be ignored. It may be used as a marketing tool if it is promising. The agenda should not be altered in the later stages of the business. Therefore, it is very important to compose all the aims and objectives which the company is looking forward to in the coming times.Objectives of the businessThe objectives are determined as per agenda of the company. On the very basic level, they can be either long term or short term. Both the objectives are equally important and assist business to sustain a good profile in the market.Short depot ObjectivesShort time objectives are generally much more target based compared to t he long term objectives. They in general include the high-octane and potential degrees of business at the coming time. Mostly the time-span is calculated, it can be a year or six months. The short term objectives are mainly used as a technique to attract investors. Moreover, these objectives can be oriented to cut down the loans and other financial liabilities required by the company on marketing and establishing the workplace in the earliest stages of the business.Long Term ObjectivesLong term objectives mainly deal with dispersion the business and turning into a high profile company. These objectives are plans of tailfin or ten years. Long term objectives may include surplus features in the business. Moreover, they may be dealing with cattle farm business comprehensive or even internationally.Appropriate targeted marketing techniquesAppropriate marketing techniques can be applied on targeted client age. These techniques can be either physical or virtual. The virtual techniq ues can be cyber advertisements and use of net profit for floating the ads all over the internet. The physical marketing techniques are oftentimes in the form of print based advertisement. These techniques are highly, effective to grab the attention for the national tourism and travelling enterprise. Services and quality arrogance Services and quality assurance techniques also have a major role in the comanys rise. The company dealing in several fields differs from a company who is an expert in a couple of fields. therefrom quality assurance to the client age and investors also contributes in spreading the business and targeting the client age.ConclusionTravelling and tourism, is a growing industry and feasible enough to be taken as a business. With the appropriate level of knowledge, planning and targeting the client age, it can be a good source of generating revenue. Moreover, it is less risk oriented compared to other business forms. If book of instructions followed in the d evelopmental stage along with the influential elements listed in initiating the business plan, it can be a permanent source of income. With slight to no modification, the business can gain the long as well as short term objectives. Moreover, the appealing packages and decent marketing techniques can turn over the interest of customers and the business can spread with smart marketing tools.

Lord Of The Rings Leadership Style Theology Religion Essay

Lord Of The Rings leading Style Theology Religion EssayGandalf-is a transformational loss attracter who fag end be a wonderful and uplifting sustain. They put passion and nil into everything. They c be close you and requisite you to succeed they besides make proceed struggles to displace and rally their following(a), constantly doing the rounds, take careing, soothing and enthusing. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect their following with a high take aim of allegiance to the vision.The extent to which a loss attraction is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his squ be up on the pursual (Bass, B. M,(1985), lead and Perfor objet dartce, N.Y. Free Presss). In the call for Lord of the Rings (Fellowship of the Ring) Gandalf takes a encounter at Balrog where he fights the dragonen which is made up of sting until he kills the dragon, before he took on the mighty dragon he tells the Aragon, Gimli and legolas to go save themselves whic h shows that Gandalf is a brave mortal.Aragon has a great man possibleness leading style he comes from a line of Kings. He has attracters qualities in him.That leading is an inherent ability. Prominent leaders as having the responsibility qualities or personality for the persuasion, implying that inherent characteristics be what make these bulk hard-hitting leaders.Spencer said that such great men argon the products of their societies, and that their actions would be impractical without the social conditions built before their lifetimes( Carneiro, (1981) Robert L. Herbert Spencer as an Anthropologist Journal of Libertarian Studies, vol. 5, 1981, pp.171-2). In the select when on Gandalfs absence Aragon was leading Gimli and Lagolas to find hobbits Pipin and rattling(a). Gimli and Lagolas followed him without either hesitation because of Aragons family fib coming from a line of kings and his get it on in tracking and scrap abilityHow in force(p) was the Leader in th e film.Gandalf was effective in the film because he was very obsolete person who had seen the with the word friend, Gandalf started to say address of different language which showed that his a person of wide range of mystify where he does not think the same as the opposite mess in the film.Aragon is an effective person in the picture show because he comes from a line of kings. At Gandalfs absence he leads the fellowship. He alike is trade good at tracking commonwealth and at sword fighting which makes him an effective leader.The fountain held by the leadersGandalf- Has sound power where they can influence an different(prenominal)s with their expertise and association. Expert power is based on what unity knows, one with experience and skills. In the film Gandalf has a lot of familiarity and experience since his a very old person. He has knowledge about elfs, oks and hobbits. Gandalf has referent power in addition because all his pursuit homogeneous him and repu teed him since he was old with the virtually knowledge. Gandalf also had legimate power he was part of the Isatari and was blurb of Sauramon, he was known as Gandalf the grey.Situation in the icon since he was a wizard and of the second order the fellowship characters followed him to Mordo since he had the most knowledge and experience, on the way to Mordo and where crossing Moira Gandalf fought the Balrog where followers obeyed his orders when he told them to go as he knew that they will come and help him and will also die.Aragon had referent and magnetised power because he made decisions which were for the betterment of the heap he had qualities which motivated flock and was effective while speaking and his followers liked him. In the film after everyone thinks that Gandalfs dead when he move down a clip while fighting with the dragon Aragon takes the position of leader, with his quick decision making he is able to convince the encephalon of the tribe and lead them to th e right direction.Situation in the film and theoriesA situation in the film which identifies Gandalfs leading style was when he fought with Sauraman, he knew he was weaker than Sauraman exactly he still fought him so Frodo could complete his ask which is destroy he ring. As a transformational leader Gandalf thinks for the benefit of the other mass first than himself. He uses his abilities to fight evil so people can be proficient from Saurag the dark lord. Aragon is also a transformational leader he taught for cosmos first than himself in the scene were Frodo was being attacked by the big monster Aragon jumped in to safe Frodo and was hurt in the process, his attempts was to safe Frodo so he could destroy the ring and save mankind. sign of organisation, level of of age(p)ity and its effectsThe fellowship of the ring was formed at Rivendell. The fellowship was made up of nine members to destroy the ring in the fire at Mount Doom which was in Mordor. The members in the fellowshi p were Gandalf, Aragon, Frodo, Sam, Legolas, Gimli, Pipin, Merry and Boromir. Gandalf lead the fellowship of the ring on his absence Aragon took all overGandalf was the leader of the fellowship of the ring everyone agreed since he had the most knowledge and experience because his seen the world more than anyone. He was the most senior person. The Blake Mouton managerial grid says some leaders are people and some are task orient (Mind Tools Limited 2013). Gandalf is people oriented he cares for people.Aragon was from a line of kings he had leadership ability in him. He utilise his power to motivate people with his leadership skills. In the movie he took over leadership when the situation arose, on Gandalfs absence he took over as leader. Spencer said that such great men are the products of their societies, and that their actions would be impossible without the social conditions built before their lifetimes ( Carneiro, (1981)Individual Culture and traitsGandalf was a wizard in the Isatari and was of the second order. He was second behind Saruman who had misuse his power and had joined forces with Saurag the dark Lord. Gandalf used his powers for the good of the people because in their organisation they were allowed to give advice to people unless not use their powers on the people. Gandalf was trying to help Frodo destroy the ring and save mankind.Aragon was the king of Gondor that secretly lived the life of a Rivendell ranger after his father death. Since leadership was in his blood he knew how to lead people. This is the reason why people followed him.Leadership theoriesConsideration- this leader care for their followers and take into account their ideas and feelings. fit in to findings and studies people exhibit two leadership styles which are people oriented and task oriented. In the movie Gandalf and Aragon are two leaders and both(prenominal) are people oriented, they take notice of their followers feeling and ideas. two Gandalf and Aragons main m otive was to destroy the ring and save mankind. In the movie seen in the end Aragon had to let Frodo go and destroy the ring on his own. Aragon made a big sacrifice choosing between individual (Frodo) and mankind survival moreover he still lead his followers and salvage their lives.The Whale riderLeadership StyleKoro- Is an Autocratic leader is a leader who dictates procedures, decides what goals are to be achieved, and directs and controls all activities without any meaningful exponentiation by the members of the group. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the rest of the group Cherry, Kendra. Lewins Leadership Styles. About.com Psychology. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. In the movie Koro always made the decision and did not take any persons input noteven his wife. Koro has absolute control over his followers.Pai is a servent leader Servant Leadership argues that the most effective leaders are servants of their people. Servant leaders get results for their organization through whole-hearted attention to their followers and followers needs. Larry Spears outlined ten characteristics of a servant leader empathy, learning, awareness, healing, persuasion, foresight, conceptualization, stewardship, commitment to the growth of others, and building community. In the movie Pai is a young little girl who wants to keep everyone happy especially her grandfather. When the whale take help to go off shore Pai rode the whale to safety.Effectiveness of the leaderKoro was an effective leader in the movie as he was old and wise. He had knowledge of his Moari refinement. He is a person who makes final decisions and everyone has to follow it even if people do not agree with the decision he makes. His downfall is he did not listen to anyones ideas and thoughts being the whale rider.Type of powerKoro has expert When you have knowledge and skills that enable you to understand a situation,he has knowledge of his culture. In the movie he trains the boys in the settlement on how to construct chiefs were he teaches the boys the ancient Moari fight songs and how to defend themselves as their ancestors did.Koro also uses his power on how a chief uses their power. Koro also abuses his power mostly on his granddaughter by mistreating her because he confides that girls cannot be leaders.Pai is a referent leader followers like her because she is influential with her words and is respected by the people. In referent power the leader sets an example for the people. In the movie when Pai was ill inured by Koro she was brave through such a difficult time.Pai leadership style is motivating the people as she is good with her words which shows she has charismatic power.. She knows that she is from a chiefly family and wants to lead her tribe successfully in the coming(prenominal)In the movie Koro believes only man can be leaders he shows he is an autocratic leader. He also shows coersive power, which is the power to observe punishme nt. In one of the movie scene where he tells Pai to go to the rim as she is a girl and is not part of the meeting. Koro does not want to accept changes in the world. In another scene he gets violent with Pai You dont mess with sacred things when he caught Pai indulging with the Moari defensive art once again he shows disrespect for his granddaughter.In the movie scene Pai is determined to severalise the Moari defensive fight, one of the boys comes to teach her the fight when he sees the determination of her attainment the fight. This shows that Pai is a referent leader as people like her determination.Type of organisation and seniorityThis leadership situation in The Whale Rider The movie is set in New Zealand in the fishing settlement of Whangere. Paikea the whale rider is the ancestor of these peopleKoro is the chief of the village and he comes from a line of chief who was known as Paikea who arrived on the island centuries ago riding on a whale.Koro is the chief of the vill age and is the most senior person in the settlement. He has a lot of knowledge about their culture and his believe is that man can only be leaders and warriors and Pai can never be a leader.Koro has a bureaucratic leadership style His way or the high way everything must be done consort to procedure or policy.But he needed to change the way of his leadership because many people did not like the way of his leadership.Pai is nowhere in the hierarchy as her grandfather precious a grandson and he believes that Pai is a bad fortune. Pai does not let this bailiwick let her down because she is an outspoken person and never gives up.Individual culture and its effectKoro and Pai played an effective role as leaders. Pai and Koro lives are ring with culture (Moari) and tradition example the whale riding story of Paikea, sing and their knowledge (Mead, 2006, p.14).Other leadership stylesPaikea in the movie illustrates trait theory, the qualities that she possesses as a leader comes from her chiefly background. She has the determination towards learn her culture from her grandfather, she has respect for her culture and people and in return her people respect her and practice her as well. She is a very charismatic leader, even after lashing Hemi in a Taiaha fight, Hemi is willing to support her and help her. She is brave affluent to jump into the sea to get her grandfathers whale tooth, which clearly describes her quality of heroism and courageous above all her determination to becoming a leader.The movie ends with Koro accepting Pai as a Wise Leader, and the people and the whale following her commands.In good familiarityDan Foreman is an executive in his company who learns that his company is being demoted. He is a charismatic leader, who has the ability to motivate and influence people. He is respected and liked by his people. These leaders are mostly ethical leaders. They are people oriented leaders.Carter on the other hand is the new head of the advertisement i ncision, because of him Dan is being demoted. Carter displays transformational leadership. Hence transformational leadership is characterized by the ability to bring about significant change in employees and the organization, thus the company believed that Carter would be the best to bring about changes in the company. Cater is also transactional leader he fired employees when the company needed cut downs.Effectiveness of the leaderDan is very determined, and is very effective as a leader he is able to influence people. People in truth liked him and have respect for him. He was the kind of leader that people wanted. Even after being demoted from as an executive and replaced by a young man half his age, he is still willing to mould for the company, he shows his loyalty towards his work and as well as his employees.Carter was also a very effective leader because he was given the trust people always listen to him and followed him. He possesses great knowledge in his field, he had di fferent kind of ideas as to how to promote and advertise. He also had the ability to influence people. He was not really liked by the people but because he was chosen as the head of the section people had to follow him.Type of powerDan Forman has referent power which is the people in his department liked him as he was a people oriented person he cared for his staff. A scene in the movie where it showed he has referent power been when he was demoted the employees in his department showed sympathy. Dan Forman also has charisma power because he has the ability to speak and motivate the workers and since he is a referent power people listen to him.Carter Duryea has legimate power because Duryea walks into Sports the States with the title of Chief of Marketing. But did not have enough experience working for a time. His previous job was selling mobiles to kids. Carter uses his power in a negative way which was to lower expense by terminating employeesIn the movie Carter tries to termina te employees who have worked in the company for years but Dan does not want that to happen as he knows that people who are being terminated have put a lot of effort in their jobs which shows that Dan cares for his workers.Type of organisation, level of seniority and its effectDan Forman and Carter Duryea work for sports magazine which is known as Sports AmericaCarter Duryea is the merchandise chief who is the senior person in the department. Which means that Dan has to work for carter? Carter has legimate power were people have to listen to him.Dan Forman was demoted which means he was no longer a legimate power but was Carters assistant even so that does not have employees and the client listen to him. Dan Forman had referent power he had the most knowledge in his department so people listen to him.Individual culture and its effectDan Forman is 51 years old and is old school he balances his life with family. He is married with two kids. He is demoted from work but strives back to his marketing chief position. Dan Forman shows respect to all people. Forman has a good reputation in the company and becomes mentor for carter at the end.Carter is a 26 year old and is from the new generation. He is after a successful carrier, but does not have a personal life, this illustrates the failure of his marriage. He does not believe in old school thoughts of Dan Formans. Carter did not like the work but was in it for the money.Leadership theoriesThis film illustrates great man theory. Great man theory sought to identify the inherited traits leaders possessed that distinguish them from people who werent leaders with the premise that some people are innate(p) with traits that make them natural leaders, thus Dan illustrates the qualities a leader needs according to great man theory.At the end of the film Carter realizes that Dan is the kind of leader that everyone wanted, therefore he tells him that he has learnt a lot from Dan. Dan on the other hand gets his position back C arter is able to learn what he lacks and he believes he could have never been better then Dan.

Indias Economic Engagements with Sub-Saharan Africa

Indias sparing Engagements with gun-Saharan AfricaINTRODUCTIONAfrica till recent past quite intimately qualified for the unceremonious category of hopeless continent that largely failed to domiciliate basic services to their people that afford non-existent or fragile giving medication and atomic number 18 shadejected to regular outdoor(a) interference. Decades of impoverishment, factional feuds, power struggles, natural calamities, harsh spirit conditions and exploitative attitude of orbicular powers ravaged most of the countries of Africa pushing them to seat of the third military personnel, incapable of sustaining themselves notwithstanding enormous wealth of natural resources. A lot has changed recently, wherein democracy has not only found its feet but too, built manifolds leading to scotch step-up.There has been renewed interest of some powers, orbit over to engage with Africa as its equal partner, era boundaries of power fasten on a new shape. This has its roots in ever increase in positive narrative of Africa. The history indicate a long and ancient account of indo-Afri lowlife traffics1, with Africa being a host to Indian Diaspora for a fairly long time. Recent times have witnessed a new restore of dynamics rising in the chance variable of rapid expansion of relations. In 2010/11 Indo-African trade reached USD 45 jillion and is expected to grow beyond USD 75 billion by 20152.While carrying out whatsoever field on Africa it will be important to understand the human paroxysm with an attention toward a general review of the kinds of peoples and social organisations that are to be found in Africa. In societies, such as those of traditional sub- Saharan Africa, which have a fairly simple socio- frugal structure, the various sectors of human manner which are organised and from which stem a measure of established permission are more than closely interwoven than in more complicated societies3. Each area of life is more sensi tive to change and to influences emanating from every(prenominal) other part. Human life is simpler, because its takes are fewer and the methods of fit them are more restricted and more sharply defined.The native Africans sine qua non to be contrasted with millions of Europeans, Indians and Syrians isolated from sprinkling of people from every over the world. A special character emerges owing to the disparity which has been impacted by outside world on its original form. Hence it becomes imperative that every paygrade of present situation on the continent and particularly all proviso for the future, regard the indigenous African and his traditional counseling of life and popular opinion as a major f agent in determining the facts and assessing the equiprobable results of change.While US shifts its focus on Asia-Pacific region, China competes with all emerging powers for energy resources and markets for finished products apart from a big time fight in fundament developi ng. Indias growth, though not as prominent as China, its capitalist interests are ambitious to extend their commercial reach. The out of bounds for scotch growth has superseded previous outlook of Indian foreign indemnity which has provided drive to the commercial ventures in newer avenues. Africa, as portrayed by ex Prime see Manmohan Singh as a major growth magnetic pole of the world4, can be viewed for new investment sites, exportation markets and capital assembly for Indian- ground interests5. The launch of Export-Import Bank of India (EXIM) as part of its Focus Africa initiative can be regarded as a stepping stone towards upsurge in economic activity6. The project initially targeted Ethiopia, Kenya and Mauritius with extension of lines of credit in support of goods export to these countries.Engagement is the buzz word for todays world and involves many a(prenominal) dimensions, to include politics, trade and job, security, infrastructure, capacity and capability buildi ng etc. India continues to position troops in Peace keeping missions in Sudan as advantageously as Democratic Republic of Congo under UN flag apart from provision of expert advice as part of falsification cooperation to many countries such as Nigeria, Zambia, Lesotho and Botswana in development and transformation of their militaries.The western analysts have propounded many theories with heed to nature of Indian engagement with Africa some see it as a supplier of investment and aid donor whereas others narrate propitious and nuanced approach while it lacks in foreign reserves to compete with Chinese cheque book diplomacy and futility of economic munificence alone. Ian Taylor in his account titled Indias rise in Africa questions if India is a scrambler or a development partner, a self interested actor bent on exploitation or one that aspires to some direct of mutual eudaimonia7.Amidst these analyses the most pertinent factor which needs to be seen is how African leaders seek to leverage Indian engagements. Thus politics comes to fore, which has dickens related dimensions, the competitive pursuit of private interests, and the determination of public constitution. notice the priority of African elites to accelerate efforts to improve the conditions, develop institutions and enabling infrastructure for overall growth, a discussed/researched approach for symbiotic relationship holds the key to any engagement. While addressing its national interests in the area, a holistic write up of all possible areas of mutually beneficial engagements will add to focussed purifyment of the region at large. The mutually beneficial engagements should allow a long-lived impact in polity as well as public public of sub Saharan Africa that their true interests and future lie with India. The practiced yet jobless youth of India can find meaningful engagements in these countries contributing to their capacities while earning goodwill, friendship and favourable environme nt for enhanced engagements.The field of study seeks to analyse existing engagements of India with sub Saharan Africa in field deal economy, military, education etc. with examination of feasibilities to enhance the same, as the opportunities, which emerge in contemporary times in the background of highly competitive world may not get in/ relent in times to come. The study has been organised into various chapters as under-(a)Chapter I Indias Africa indemnity in Contemporary Times.(b)Chapter II India-Africa Security Cooperation and its Evolution.(c)Chapter III Economic stain in Sub Saharan Africa.(d)Chapter IV Indias Initiatives in Sub Saharan Africa.(e)Chapter V Indian Diaspora and its Contribution.(f)Chapter VI Way Ahead.CHAPTER IINDIAS AFRICA POLICY IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES mooring independence, seventeen long time of Nehruvian era witnessed non-alignment as the corner stone of Indias foreign constitution. This was adopted primarily as a visionary policy based on idealism. The geography as well as fragile economic conditions acted as material reasons for following a policy of non alignment, which certain academicians view as a safe path to seek cooperation of big powers and prevent any power bloc from turning hostile, apart from Nehrus strong condemnation against balance of power, military alliances and rush to exhibit military power. India became extremely inner looking during Cold war era as it was marred by its domestic problems. Persistent levels of poverty, rising corruption and poor politics during 1970s and 1980s along with tumultuous neighbourhood tied India to sub-regional and national issues, lose African Continent as being irrelevant to its National interests.Post cold war the policy mandarins in Delhi were compelled to reshape its foreign policy, victorious into account the new impulses of ball-shaped arena. In addition, Indias growth judge have averaged at around 6% per annum since 1990s, after taking morose in 1980s8. Indias pro-busi ness strategy followed by liberalisation in proterozoic 1990s along with refocus of Indian Companies to fresh markets and investment opportunities in regions having large Indian diasporas resulted in consolidation of old ties. Impressive growth rates allowed India to address its internal problems and fine tune its foreign policy with economic ambitions. After a detailed arrangement to send envoys to sub Saharan countries during 1996-97 as a mark of reaffirmation of Indias government agency to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of south-south coalition9, the Government of India increased its intricacy with African states further in 2003. This was followed with announcement of Indian increase Initiative.India is in drastic need of finding new suppliers of energy and other simple resources. For India to become a global power it must grow to a higher place 8 percent annually for at least two decades. The insure availability of energy will be a key factor. India despite its domestic production of vegetable oil and natural gas will cool it incrementally require additional resources of energy. Indias hydrocarbon import dependency has been predicted to rise from topical 70 percent to almost 92 percent by 203010. As true to any Nation, the continued growth of India depends on availability of raw materials for industrial production and energy sources to support industries. As per reports till 2009, India trade 70% of its oil requirements and provided heavy subsidies on domestic prices, leading to recapitulate digit inflation figures after being under 6%11 for 13 years. Indias Africa policy has laid emphasis on expansion and diversification of supply sources and to that end Indian national oil companies have purchased fairness stakes in overseas oil and gas fields to get word reserves and provide a boost to production capability. These include fields in Africa, Southeast Asia South, America and Caspian Sea region. Despite these eff orts the majority imports arrive from Middle east where Indian companies struggle for direct access or investments12.The tilt in relations of immediate neighbours of India towards China, tensions with Pakistan, contender with China and reflexion of African partners as all weather friends during world wide sanctions stake nuclear tests were the major motivators for India to reformulate its foreign policy. While India is seeking to be a more dominant power and credibility in global scene, it is increasingly relying on Southern backing. Objectives of Indian National interests appear to be fulfilled through newly identified means of Aid. On one hand India rejected foreign aid from most of its donors in 2003 to draw attention of world order to its self sufficiency in tackling its internal problems of poverty, corruption etc. and on the other hand to conjecture its role as a new donor. India initiated its development service way beyond its immediate neighbours along with scaling up o f diplomatical initiatives at heart Africa, increasing the number of Indian embassies in the continent. It also covered the regional divisions of Africa by creating three joint secretaries13.Historical and ideological linkages between India and African countries have been important factor, too.1950s witnessed south-south cooperation as a platform for struggle by former colonies for independence and great autonomy. Bandung conference of 1955 brought together 29 Asian countries with Africa to promote cultural and economic cooperation in Asian-African region. Mutual interest and repute for national sovereignty was the basis of this conference. NAM came to being in 1961 and Group of 77 in 1964, which were viewed as anti hegemonic. India and China championed these movements and have been in competition to lead the representation of Southern states, since then. While China provided military care for liberation movements, India was assisted in anti- apartheid struggles in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Ideals of Mahatma Gandhi were integral to Indias foreign policy, who has been quoted to have said that ideas and services will be drivers of job between India and Africa un interchangeable Western exploiters busy in trading make goods against raw materials. This resulted in emergence of Indias philosophy of developmental assistance to Africa which culminated in creation of ITEC programme14. This placed training and capacity building ahead(predicate) of financial assistance. During Delhi declaration of India-Africa Forum Summit in 2008 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, announced thatThe time has come to create a new architecture for our engagement in the 21st Century. We visualise a partnership that is anchored in the fundamental principles of equality, mutual respect and mutual benefit. Working together, the two billion people of India and Africa can mass an example of fruitful cooperation in the develop world15.The Indian policy makers identified the pre conditions of Western donors which was attached for a long time on any aid without aligning it with the saying of developing the productive supply side of economies. A model of developmental assistance with minimal conditions and respect for the national sovereignty worked out by Indian policy makers appeared to be more acceptable and less imposing. A new body for governing Indias outgoing development assistance, called development Partnership Administration (DPA) has been set up under the Economic dealing Division of MEA, which is just short of an aid agency. It is mandated to streamline administrative issues of stainless process apart from assessing the effectiveness of credit lines that India is extending to its partners.16 It primarily allowed African states to set terms of agreement and overall purpose of aid. In 2009, Paul Kagame, chairman of Rwanda, announced his desire that-All would benefit if the world focused on increasing investment in Africa, and if Rwanda and the rest of the continent worked to establish more equitable international partnerships. A trade relationship built on this new approach would be more helpful in stretch what should be our common goal sustainable development, mutual prosperity and respect17Value and Sector based distribution of Lines of CreditSource Indian Development Cooperation Research at Centre for policy ResearchIndias security concerns and contribution into stability of African security are also related issues with an need to secure its National interests. Owing to deteriorating conditions of piracy at sea on West Africa and existent threat off the sailplaning of African horn, there lies an opportunity to exercise its well espoused maritime dogma published in 2004 and revised in 200918. Indias experience in UN peace keeping missions especially in Africa has its origin in contributions to determine stability of the region. There exists a framework for defence cooperation in the form of training teams to evolve better tr aining programmes for the countries it is engaged with. Indias nautical presence is largely restricted to anti piracy in the disjunction region, but there exists a wider scope for enhanced engagement in operations as well as training with a broader aim of addressing strategically important Indian Ocean rim.AnalysisWhat emerges from the study of developing of Indias foreign policy with respect to Africa, is that the main drivers of Indias relations with Africa present a tricky mix of strategic, economic and political factors based on national interests of India with complex set of internally diverse actors and historically stated policy of non alignment generally understood as non interference, and then providing enough space for the other partners to have a say in engagements. In effect, India has sought to develop and postdate a strategic partnership simultaneously maintaining bilateral policy objectives. African relations are suggestive of being a conduit to Indias wider inte rnational objectives with a focus on improving trade as well as political conditions not only for itself but also developing nations at large employing its economic and political muscle. As part of revisionist approach India has pushed hard for reconfiguration of some of the institutions of global governance. African nations have been observed as useful allies in such ventures, as almost all of them have backed India in its bid for permanent seat in UN Security Council.The critics of the subject have highlighted certain specific issues with respect to hidden intent of India, incoherent policies, pitfalls in thought process by way of over reliance on nostalgia of Nehruvian era and over stretched MEA with limited staff to address a capacious area and lack of decentralised agency to ensure correct and liquid implementation policies on ground. A relatively ad-hoc system of overseeing various policy issues have led to significant gaps in implementation of identified thematic areas. Tho ugh Indias private sector actors drive numerous commerce related agendas, businesses havent progressed based on the regional strengths against the backdrop of fragile security conditions. Issues of poor infrastructure, lack of access to finance for beautiful traders and limited logistic support act as impediments that need to be addressed to harness unprecedented opportunities that emerge for Indian companies. The experts also orchestrate at pitfalls in public-private economic diplomacy approach to Africa largely overdue to poor coordination, lack of long term vision and enthusiasm to pursue apart from poor market intelligence.Despite provision of Lines of Credit commitments, in consonance with the principle of mutually beneficial development cooperation, engagement on economic affairs also should seek enhanced role and desegregation of Confederation of Indian industries, with pan-African mechanisms such as NEPAD (The New Partnership for Africas Development), AU (African Union) and AfDB (African Development Bank Group).As more and more oil imports are planned from traditional oil producing countries in Africa, security strategies need to be put into place in greater details. Countries like Nigeria which are one amongst the largest oil suppliers to India from Africa face internal as well as external security crisis. While groups like Boko Haram pose threats closer substructure to various oil producing infrastructure, emerging piracy in the west coast of Africa pose threat at sea. The scrounge of piracy has been addressed in a very limited manner by certain groupings like Economic community of West African States(ECOWAS), Indias capabilities in defence and familiarity with wide ranging security concerns can empower ECOWAS to address insecurity caused by rising piracy on the region. India needs to consider initiating economic diplomatic strategy including maritime defence cooperation and innovative infrastructural financing mechanism aimed to benefit local development in gas and oil producing countries in Africa while securing imports that could assist in Indias need for fuel.To sum up the epitome it is felt that India has tremendous potential and value to stimulate development and economic growth across Africa, but it has lacked to articulate a coherent Africa Policy which appeals Africans. In addition, more clarity needs to be brought into the actual agencies dealing with Indias development cooperation to Africa along with a vibrant spokesperson who clarifies any ambiguities which are perceived in daily discourse of business. A greater coordination of Indian private sector with African regional and continental governance frame works rather than bilateral engagements will bring better prospects.1 Beri R, Indias Africa policy in the post-Cold War era an assessment, strategic Analysis 27 2, 2003, p 216322 Noury V, Trade levels grow by 400% in five years, African Business, Jan. 2012, p. 35.3 Peter FM Mc Ewwan and Sutcliffe Robert B, Th e Study of Africa, p 13.4 Times of India, 24 May 2011.5 Agrawal S, emerge donors in international development assistance the India case (Ottawa International Development Research Centre, Partnership and Business Development Division, 2007), p.76 Noury Valerie, Trade levels grow by 400% in five years, African Business, Jan 2012, Issue 382, p. 35.7 Corkin L and Naidu S, China and India in Africa an introduction, Review of African Political sparing 35 1,2008, pp. 115116.8 Jenkins Edwards, 200620079 En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_IndiaAfrica, accessed on 03 Nov 2014.10 Gupta Ranjit, Special Commentary, India and Gulf Looking beyond Energy, Islam and the Diaspora, www.ipcs.org, accessed on 03 Nov 2014.11 Mc Carthy Tom, Assessing China and Indias New purpose in Africa, www.e-ir.info /2011/07/26, accessed on 03 Nov 201412 Independent Statistics and Analysis by US Energy data Administration, www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=in , accessed on 03 Nov 201413 Mc Carthy Tom, As sessing China and Indias New Role in Africa, www.e-ir.info /2011/07/26, accessed on 03 Nov 201414 50 years of ITEC, www.mea.gov.in / uploads/PublicationDocs/24148_Revised_50yrs_of ITEC_brochure.pdf, accessed on 03 Nov 201415 www.idsa.in, 9 April 2008, accessed on 04 Nov 201416 www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/aid-from-india-coming-to-a-country-near-you/article 3859607.ece , accessed on 04 Nov 2014.17 www.paulkagame.com/speeches_main_3.php, accessed on 04 Nov 201418 Indian Maritime philosophy release (release ID 52223), Indian MoD, 28 August 2009, pib.nic.in /newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=52223, accessed 04 Nov 2014 News article titled Maritime doctrine makes subtle changes in principles of war, published in THE HINDU, on 30 Aug 2009, accessed on 04 Nov 2014 www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/maritime-doctrine-makes-subtle-changes-in-principle-of-war/article216179.ece

History of Foreign and Security Policy

History of unlike and protection PolicyDefining alien and Security Policy from the refrigerating state of war to PresentTodays increasingly globoseised community has seen more(prenominal) diplomatic and social evolution in the past half-century than the civilized piece has seen in recent memory. The advent of multi acresal concern and armed forces alliances such(prenominal) as the North Atlantic craft Organization has increasingly intertwined protection policies with unconnected policies, which in turn entail more than just force alliances. Foreign subsidies by way of fiscal aid grants and weapons contracts warrant the accept for nations to adopt solid, transp argonnt immaterial and earnest policies as the traditional global threat of warfare changes. The some nonable examples for security and remote policies as well as the need for a national and supranational governmental monitor are the United States and the European partnership. The aforementi bingled two bod ies packet amidst them diplomatic ties to most every member of the outside(a) community. The shipment of conflicting and security policies becomes more apparent done examination of diplomatically little(a) and militarily-temperamental regions such as the core East, whose international agreements and regional alliances are the basis for subsequent American and EU insurance insurance, without which allies and trade partners would find atomic number 53self micro benefit from trade and security agreements. Foreign indemnity amounts to little more than a series of political guidelines and rules of engagement by which any country implementing it best gains at a certain point in time. Foreign policies are known to change base of operationsly from one form to the next the nippy war is perhaps the greatest testament to the lay nature of international relations and foreign policy. Robert John Myers strike outs in his US Foreign Policy in the ordinal Century how quickly occidental countries changed their approach to the Soviet Union. Prior to 1945 during the savage vie of World War II, the primacy of the wisdom of political realism seemed to take away been learned by the eitheries, who interlocked please, motive, and moral philosophy in the councils of the principal Allied power1 the USSR at the time was an substantive ally against Germany and Japan. Much to the chagrin of their current political detractors, the Soviets were perhaps the most powerful ally America had in the war against the Axis powers, with borders spanning the vegetable marrow of the Nazi regime and maritime waters bordering the Imperial Japanese. Foreign policy then had nothing to do with the civil liberties, democracy, and freedom of the press so touted today in the alike(p) countries that huddled together in con causeation to Moscow during the Cold War. Prior to the partition of Germany at the close of the war, it was tardily recognizable that wartime cooperation to defeat the Axis was clearly important and Allied foreign policy toward its Soviet contingent on(p) was one of camaraderie and mutual interdependence2. at one time the war ended, however, the close ties between the powers dissipated and politically malignant disgust filled the void. With a barely nascent United Nations absent as policy moderator, the US and the USSR led a series of dappleholder wars starting time with the attack by North Korea on South Korea on 25 June 1950, marking the limited cooperation and mediation that came to be expected from the UN in the security content3. International mediation, which should yield taken place given the alliance that transpired between the US, USSR, and Europe during WWII was all but gone in the years of reconstructive memory and the escalation of the Cold War. There are two points of speculation given the outset of the Cold War the first is that the United Nations failed as an international mediator, and the present moment is th at the United Nations was obsolete, serving only to keep other countries out of the interference fringe of the Soviet-American struggle for dominance. The difference between foreign and security policy during the Cold War was elementary. The American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union was one of mutual trade and sales, the development of which was speculated by many to be a pecuniary insurance policy if the two superpowers intertwined economically, the idea of armed struggle would be so financially devastating that neither side would be bequeathing to continue on the path to war. American security policy was markedly different given the proxy wars fought in Korea, Vietnam, and the bosom East. Foreign policy essentially existed in the case of the Cold War to cover that security policy would never be employed.The Cold War was a fascinating case of how foreign policy and security policy could come off completely contrarian to each other. Any two given nations can cling to a micable foreign policies in their approach to each other free lance of a covertly hostile security policy as certify by the oft- angleing approach of advantageive American administrations to the Soviet behemoth. Jimmy Carter, for example, forbade grain sales to the Soviet Union following the nations usurpation of Afghanistan in 1979, while Ronald Reagan made the unpopular embargo an issue in the 1980 elections, reversing the policy later on his election4. The Reagan policy shift did not aver a change in security policy, as the administration keep its support of Afghan mujahideen forces through arms sales and pay while continuing its agricultural trade with Moscow.It is now well-known that the UN was inconsequent in international mediation throughout the Cold War. This is not to read that an international or supranational regulative body is not needful in the case of the US and USSR, the absent (and perhaps powerless) UN was perceived as such because their collective powe r was dwarfed by the two superpowers. With no military or financial incentive, the question of the relevance of a supranational regulatory body in foreign and security policy is moot. Even today, American foreign policies often contravene UN resolutions with little or no repercussion due to the immense economic, political, and military might of working capital. While the Cold War ended relatively peacefully without UN intervention, the concept of an international body was not scorned by the US, which partnered with various countries to create the North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO). It should be noted, however, that the US was an open advocate of NATO for the very dry land that the UN was not potent enough a body to act on American will or on behalf of American aspirations. International mediation in this sense is needed for the monitoring of foreign and security policy whether or not mediation will be effective in both sectors is quite another issue.Foreign policy can be mo nitored, policed, and even dictated by a supranational body as evidenced in the partition of Germany and the formation of the Eastern Bloc post-WWII. Security policy, however, is a point of major contention with any nation face up with the prospect of supranational control. Any nation with major investment (diplomatic or financial) abroad would be reluctant to cede jurisdiction of its own soldiers and reign to an outside body, especially one such as the UN whose member mention consists of nations antagonistic to one another. The irony here is that a multi-national group could have foreign and security policy power over a nation whose security policy is antagonistic to one or more members of the same international group. Israel, for example, would embark on an unprecedented leap of faith if it allowed the UN and its Arab members to negociate its security policy, all despite the fact that from the first years of its fount (1948-1967) the Jewish state relied on the UN to justify it s existence to the international community. The multi-faceted Arab-Israeli encounter is just one example of how uncurbed populace superpowers exerted their influence unchecked by the vigil of an international body.Prior to the riposte of the Soviet Union, foreign policy was a much simpler venture as the world set itself functioning under the umbrella of just two superpowers, led by and acting under the aegis of either Washington or Moscow. The fall of Communism left a vacuum in the Middle East, as the now-extinct USSR had no allegiances to the Middle East in which it fought a series of proxy wars and involutions with the United States. What transpired following the end of Moscows reign as a world superpower was the creation of several diplomatically breakaway states in the Middle East. Where Moscow once supported Syria, Egypt, and Iraq while arm said nations leadership, they found themselves increasingly dependent on other sources for trade and international subsidy such as the EU and the United States. The foreign policy then drove the security policy, baited by American and EU sponsorship acting independently of the UN. Today, Egypt, once the sworn enemy of Israel (whose closest international ally is Washington), receives Americas second-largest international aid package. This of course is contingent upon the maintenance of a lasting peace as well as other conditions detailed in the Camp David Accords of 1978. The UN and the EUs move in the conflict were token(prenominal), as security policies of the two comprised of a minimal militaristic component and a far larger foreign policy component. Pinar Bilgin observes in Regional Security in the Middle East how the fragile Mediterranean as an alternative spatial representation began to take turn from the 1970s onward largely in line with the development and ever-changing security conception and practices of the European Union, a group whose policies toward the region have been shaped around three majo r concerns energy security (understood as the sustained flow of oil and natural gas at healthy prices) regional stability (understood as domestic stability especially in countries in geographically North Africa) and the cessation of the Israel/Palestine conflict5. unconnected the US and USSR, whose motives will be examined later, the EU was interested solely in the protection of their economic preservation and the prevention of any armed conflict from spilling into their geographic vicinity. In addition to the Arab-Israeli crisis, EU Member States such as Italy, France, and Spain faced growing resentment in the Maghreb (Arab North Africa) as a corollary of imperial European rule. The EUs policies were hence different from non-EU actors who advance and supported the search for security within a Euro-Mediterranean framework the EU has almost single-handedly sought to construct a Euro-Mediterranean Region to becoming its own domestic economic, societal, and, to a much lesser extent , military security interests6. The American and Soviet interest in the region was also one of economic, political, and security nature, but on a much larger scale. Buzan and Waever note in their Regions and Powers The Structure of International Security howThe United States and the Soviet Union were latecomers as major players in Middle Eastern regional security, though the former had long-standing oil interests there. The two superpowers were drawn into a pattern of regional turbulence that was already strongly active. Their interest in the region was heightened by the fact that, like Europe, the Middle East sat on the marches between the spheres of communism and free worlds. Stalins aggressive policy after 1945 had pushed Turkey and Iran into the arms of the West. Turkey became a member of NATO, and was thus hardened into the main European front of the Cold War. Until the Islamic conversion in 1979, Iran fell increasingly under American sway, not only through corporate oil int erests, but also as part of the lite alliance arrangements that connected American containment clients in Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. To counter this US success right on its borders, the Soviet Union tried to play in the Arab world behind this front line, by establishing political and military cogitate to the radical regimes and movements that sprang up in the Middle East during the 1950s and sixties (Syria, PLO, Iraq, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Yemen)7The entire Middle East, ranging from Egypt to Iran, became what Buzan and Waever describe as a third front in the Cold War, after Europe and Asia, and its oil resources tied it powerfully into the global economy8. The Camp David Accords were especially important while Israeli security policies remained virtually unchanged (the Israeli-Egyptian peace is frequently described as cool in comparison to Israeli-Turkish relations), their foreign policies shifted. The two acted under the auspices of the United States, signalling a significant achievement in the Cold War. though the crosscutting complexities of internal alignments in the Middle East make it difficult to phantom a clear Cold War pattern of great power intervention, the small gains and losses in war and political action were of ample consequence. With the 1978 signing of the Camp David Accords, the United States shifted its foreign policy in the Arab world successfully, splitting allegiances in the Middle East to one drawn along Arab lines to one drawn along foreign policy lines. With Turkey and Iran (at least until Tehrans 1979 Islamic Revolution) securely in the American camp, the Middle East was thus left only with Syria and Iraq in alliance with the USSR. contradict in the Middle East was hence capitalized upon by the United States by way of foreign policy, which existed independently of the nations security policies.Foreign policies always shift more easily than security policies, as the former serve the interest of a nations economy and the latter are charged with the military protection of a nations sovereignty, diplomatic or otherwise. As evidenced by the Cold War, American policies in Iraq completely have shifted dramatically. Prior to 1979, for example, American foreign and security policies were in place to secure its interests (Saudi Arabia and Israel) from Baghdad. From 1979 to 1991, American foreign policies toward Iraq remained the same, but its security policies shifted to accommodate Iraki military suppression of post-revolutionary Iran. From 1991 to 2003, both foreign and security policies shifted to those of aggression and financial seclusion. It should be noted that until 1991, these foreign policy shifts were executed at the opinion of three American presidents. Iran followed the same path, with pre-1979 Tehran under Reza Shah Pahlavi serving as a vital blockage to Soviet expansionism. Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979, security policy was hostile toward and sought to exclude Tehran by funding Saddam Hussein. Foreign policy changed during the Contra Scandal, wherein American military leaders sold Tehran various munitions and weapons in direct subterfuge of Washingtons official military support of Baghdad weapons were sold to a lesser evil (Iran) in order to fund covert operations in support of Nicaraguan right-wing guerrillas. Managuas leftist-government was position to be the latest expansion of Soviet influence and was hence a closer threat in physical proximity than the rise of the radical Islamic government of Tehran which was equally opposed to the Soviets at the time. All this transpired, again, without minimal monitoring by an international body. The greatest irony of the said(prenominal) events, however, is the perception of their respective successes and failures. America succeeded without international intervention in the public security and dismantlement of the Soviet Union however, todays chaotic Middle East was a corollary, including the 9/11 attacks that change d forever the security and foreign policies of the United States. The current wars waged by America and what allies remain are again largely conducted without the support or monitoring by the UN or any other international body, and it remains to be seen how the future will unfold.BIBLIOGRAPHYBilgin, Pinar. (2005) Regional Security in the Middle East A full of life Perspective.London Taylor Francis Routledge.Buzan, Barry and Ole Waever. (2003) Regions and Powers The Structure ofInternational Security. Cambridge Cambridge U P.Myers, Robert John. (1999) US Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century TheRelevance of Realism. Baton Rouge Louisiana State U P.Wilson, Ernest J. (2004) potpourri and US Foreign Policy A Reader. New YorkTaylor Francis Routledge.1Footnotes1 Myers 1999, p. 982 Ibid3 Myers 1999, p. 984 Wilson 2004, p. 1275 Bilgin 2005, p. 1406 Bilgin 2005, p. 1407 Buzan and Waever 2003, p. 1988 Buzan and Waever 2003, p. 197

Analysis of LAP and Modified LAP

Analysis of launder and Modified lap covering1. Critic altogethery reexamine a test pointedness that you have intentional for inclusion in an estimation instrumentIt is n premature two decades since the St Vincent answer (1989) c all tolded for a marked reduction in morbidity with diabetes related worrys to be achieved through better forbearing management. The forthcoming order suggests that the cargon for of cautiousness in Britain is still very variable in quality. (J. Mason, 1999) et al. conducted trial on diabetes hoof it tending, and provided an important message that vigilant and trained health c be professionals bay window identify the emerging risk factors for ulceration at relatively low toll. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE 2004) clinical rule of thumb on type 2 diabetes arse cargon on the prevention and management of foot problems recommends that healthcare professionals and other personnel involved in the sagaciousness of diabet ic feet should receive adequate training.Hence, it is imperative that the Diabetes Specialist Registrars SPR, the upcoming diabetologists, who look after diabetic feet in the community and secondary care, should be trained and adequately assessed if they want to make an impact on persevering role outcomes. gum olibanum, the need arises for a training CME Continued medical examen Education twenty-four hours for the management of diabetes foot and estimate onward they treat patients with these problems. The main aim of the perspicacity is to optimise the capabilities of all learners and practitioners by providing motivation and direction for future instruction. The assessment has to be moldable in this upshot guiding future learning by providing reassurance, promoting reflection and shaping values.At the end of the training day ( accessory 2) the visualize is to conduct a circumscribed, observed, hanker field of study type of assessment implement with 3-4 items and acquaintance based assessment. angiotensin-converting enzyme such item an observed limited prospicient case is described in Appendix 1.The plan to make example of a real case is to illustrate the well-nigh of the day to day bafflingies and uncertainties one display cases during clinical judgement. The cadence breakd birth is to prepare them for thinking around unhomogeneous aspects in buckle undern sentence. They are assessed in diverse generic skills as well as speciality knowledge and management of the case. Appendix 1 page 24-26Properties Even though it is employ as an item here, the gigantic case has traditionally been rehearse as a summative shaft by itself in the just abouttime(prenominal) and its properties in those situations have been studied extensively. Hence, the properties care reliableness and sensibleity have been discussed briefly with others of the items such as facility.The reliableness of a spacious case go off be repaird by structuring t he long case i.e. elements of discussion and questioning (Olson et al 2000, Wass and Jolly 2001). Thus mirror image and structuring is applied here to im testify the dependableness. This increases pupil perception of fairness.cogency This send a carriage be addressed by introduction of examiners who observe trainee public presentation throughout and so the trainee is observed by the team in all varys of the long case out here (Olson et al 2000). instalment It could be do low facility depending on the complexity of the case. dissimilitude is non really applicable since it will be utilise as part of fictile utensil simply piece of ass be make into a naughtyly discriminatory one by following world(a) assessment. The other properties of the assessment tool are not discussed as it is use mainly as an item.Item Response Theory This is not discussed here as it is mainly utilise in the stage setting of Multiple filling Questions. thither is not much in the literature a bout the strengths and weaknesses of the long case when used as an item in a influenceative assessment tool. So here is an campaign to look at both the positive aspects and potential difference drawbacks of this item should this be used in the context of this set upive assessment.The positive aspects of this item Observed Modified Long brassHolistic and Robust This item in the long case is real and looks at capability and some aspects of action.Multidisciplinary Approach mimics how the clinics are conducted in closely hospitals and assess domiciliatedidates knowledge across specialities.Written and Verbal Constructive feedback Ende (1983) proposed that the process of feedback should be expected and well timed, based on first glove data (observable behaviour) and regulated in quantity. In a systematic review by Best Evidence in medical exam Education (BEME) coaction (Veloski, et al., 2006) the positive impact of the feedback process was confirmed, with the around mar ked effects if provided by an authoritative source. These principles are strictly followed in this item. The method of feedback can be either Pendleton or ALOBA- Agenda-Led Outcome Based Analysis.Some of the potential drawbacks of this item-How they can be overcomeRisk of assessing the short term memory This purpose stems from the fact that the assessment is make just after the CME program as suggested.Based on Bligh (2000), the above graph, demonstrates the retention power if tested early after the learning meet. Hence the argument the item should be administered in a flash after the CME to increase retention.Resources and Standardisation The number of people including specialists involved and the plaque will require resources, including money, unless some of the funding could be organise by the educational fund for the SPR in the region. Some contribution can be arranged from other sources including pharmaceutical comp either help. Since it is a formative assessment tool, it need not be rigidly standardised in assessment and it is to promote the professional development of the SPRs.Why rigid time limits and not just global assessment? This rigid structure is to give an opportunity for individually of specialists to have an opportunity to observe and feed back. In real life, the time spent on apiece task whitethorn be incompatible but giving stringent time limits in wish well manner gives the opportunity to observe how the candidates perform inwardly these time constraints. The global assessment is avoided so that the feedback component of necessity to be broken down to from each one level to make sense and promote specific areas for improvement.Bias Since some of the examiners and experts would have taught these SPRs in the course there may be twist from these examiners after observing the candidates interaction over a day and office want them to do well or otherwise in the assessment. This can be avoided by formal training of the examine rs.Organisational consideration The main hindrance will be getting the team of assessors together as tending(p) in the item and make sure they are trained in giving constructive feedback to the candidates. Getting a real life patient to participate in such a scenario superpower not be awkward as patients are often happy to share their experiences.CONCLUSIONS If used in conjunction with variety of other items, perhaps it can be used as a cog in the wheel of summative assessment for the proud s stock assessment e.g. as a part of portfolio in final year Rotation In Training assessment RITA.It fulfils the learning objectives of the course and what the item intends to measure.This item also comes close to what is ordinarily measured in items of constitute place based assessment WPBA. part 2 Assessment optionUsing relevant theoretical and/or search literature, critically review one instrument of assessment used in clinical education. circuit and Modified roachBACKGROUND In t he traditional long case candidates spend 30-45mins with a patient from whom they take a muniment and examine. An examiner is not present and the candidate is not observed. The student summarises and is examined by a pair of examiners over a 20-30 little period. The usual format of practice in long cases is to examine patients that are already known to the examiner or are in the examiners own specialty. The long case, patient based mental testings have been used for decades both in undergraduate and postgraduate settings both as a formative and summative tool. They were specifically used for final certification exam for postgraduates both here and elsewhere. They had their strengths in that it evaluates implementation with real patients and enables candidates to gather information and develop handling plans under realistic circumstances (Norcini, 2002). However, this method has drawn lot of criticism. The problem lies with inter case dependability (Wass, et al., 2001) and when subjected to psychometric psychoanalysis, these examinations were effectuate to be treacherous and so have fallen from favour (Turnbull, et al., 2005). Particular problems were with the reproducibility of get ahead generated by the long case. To improve this mandatory large sampling which itself required a lot more resources which make the long case difficult to use as a summative assessment tool.Recent reverse suggests that the long case is still a highly relevant tool in that it appears to test a several(predicate) clinical process to that of the merged short case examination (Wass and Jolly, 2001). A study, performed with undergraduates in London found that, by observing the process in the long case, the above problems could be overcome. This probably led to a return of long cases in the form of OSLER Objective Structured Long Examination Record introduced by Gleeson(Gleeson, 1997) and wash away the Leicester Assessment piece of land.The lap up was originally developed to assess the source competency of general practitioners in the UK. In the LAP, the patient is not known to the examiners and at least(prenominal) one of the examiners is not an expert in the specialty beingness examined. It has been designed for use in live and/or video record consultations with either real or simulated patients. It was subsequently adapted for use in undergraduate teaching. The LAP is designed to provide assessment by directly observed consultations with real patients/simulated patients, but to present this in a structured format closer to an OSCE, which also allows other aspects of surgical procedure to be assessed. Seven prioritized categories of consultation competency which need to be get the hang are assessed with marking (Appendix 3).The circumscribed LAP varies from the LAP in a couple of areas. Performance is assessed against predefined standards which are divers(prenominal) compared to the LAP. The examiners attend training before they become asse ssors in the circumscribed LAP. The guidelines to the examiners how to mark and assess and the assessment forms are appended (Appendix 4 5). Inevitably, some overlap occurs between components of differing categories. (Bhakta, et al., 2005) acknowledge that no single assessment format can adequately assess all the learning objectives within the course blueprint, a combination of assessments (including OSCE, EMQ, essays, short case, and long case) are currently used to assess the students competency. The authors main objective is to use theoretical and research literature to critically review the LAP and modified LAP used in the assessment of clinical practice. This review is based on the seven-spot-spot key concepts ( cutting edge der Vleuten, 1996 Schuwirth and van der Vleuten, 2006 PMETB, 2007) listed belowPurposesAlignmentPropertiesStandardsSamplingEvidence take aim1. PURPOSES It can be used for both formative and summative assessment. (Fraser, et al., 1994) argued that the modified LAP is designed for both purposes.The focus of the examination in the modal(a) clinical exam for undergraduate is to promote further improvement as they have done only one clinical year e.g. WMS and Leicester medical checkup School. Hence, the feedback is handed to the students which helps them to focus on their strengths and improve on their performance The tertiary and 4th year medical students of these Schools believed that it was the likely to enhance their consultation performance (McKinley, et al., 2000). It has also been used as a formative tool in improving professional competence in variant countries and contrasting specialties (Lau, et al., 2003, Redsell, et al., 2003).When (Teoh and Bowden, 2008), line of reasoning for the resurrection of the long case, state that the observed long case such as the Modified LAP doesnt encourage the reductionist border on as in Objective Structured Clinical Examination OSCE . Thus, it can be an ensample summative assessme nt tool for the high stake exam but perhaps has to be used in conjunction with other tools as discussed below. Additionally, in most(prenominal) cases, the assessment is an end of year high-stakes assessment and, for flunk students, there is generally only a short time available for remediation. The feedback provides a way to focus them on the areas of their consultation skills and prepare for their curative exam.2. ALIGNMENT The Education Committee of the General medical exam Council (GMC) sets and monitors standards in all UK medical schools. Medical students must be able to demonstrate their competency and professionalism through a list of educational outcomes set out in the publication of Tomorrows Doctors (2003 and 2009) prior to graduation. The intended outcome envisaged by WMS is to produce a generation of doctors who have knowledge, proficient clinical skills and the appropriate strengths and behaviours ready for work as Foundation Year one doctors. The modified LAP fo rms a part of the summative assessment in assessing mainly clinical skills e.g. examination techniques.As described, it has various components and proper, planned blueprinting against the learning objectives of the MBChB course and competencies of the various specialties (Wass, Van der Vleuten, Shatzer and Jones, 2001). Thus, assessment and curriculum design should be intricately interwoven and the assessment of course drives the learning (Wass, Van der Vleuten, Shatzer and Jones, 2001). Similarly, in postgraduate exams, it usually follows knowledge based assessment in the form of MCQs and careful alignment should be done considering the curriculum set by the institutions like the Royal Colleges.3. PROPERTIES The prop of an assessment or more commonly described as the utility program or usefulness of an assessment, was originally described by Van der Vleuten (1996) as a product of its hardship, reliability, educational impact, cost-effectiveness and acceptability. In later years, the term feasibleness is explicitly acknowledged and has been described as an added component of an assessments utility in clinical education (Schuwirth and Van der Vleuten, 2006 PMETB, 2007).Validity Validity represents the extent to which a measurement actually measures what it intended to measure. In medical education, this signifies the leg of meaningfulness for any interpretation of a test score. (Downing, 2003)A recent study exhibit that observation does measure a useful and distinctive component of write up taking clinical competence over and above the contribution made by the presentation (Wass and Jolly, 2001). It would seem logical that, quite than relying on a presentation alone, observation of the candidate turn eliciting the history and carrying out the examination would be a more valid assessment of the candidates competencies in LAP. There is data in the literature for the face validity and content of the seven categories and the various components of consultat ion competence as contained in the Leicester Assessment Package (Fraser, McKinley and Mulholland, 1994). Whether or not the test scores obtained, in any point LAP, are an accurate representation of real world competency is subjected to a vast array of variables (Downing and Haladyna, 2004). For instance, the design of the test items, number of representative cases, experience training and leniency of examiners, consistency of simulated patients used mainly in psychiatry, completeness of marking schemes and the characteristics of the candidates, can all affect the validity of a LAP, making it a valid assessment in one education institute, but not another. However McKinley et al in their study of modified LAP in the general practise setting concluded that students will be exposed to a valid set of challenges to their consultation skills during consultations with borderline six-spot largely unselected patients(McKinley, Fraser, Vleuten and Hastings, 2000).Concurrent validity wheth er the results are consistent with those tests of sympathetic constructs? There are studies comparing OSCEs with observed long cases which is similar to LAPs in some ways however, the author has not come across studies comparing different types of observed long case e.g. OSLER vs. Modified LAP. Does it predict the future performance need to be assessed by more studies by following up the generation of students where the LAP is used as an assessment tool. Also, more studies are needed to investigate the construct validity of LAP.Reliability Reliability refers to the degree of consistency within a measurement tool, the extent to which an instrument is open(a) of repeatedly producing the same test score even when administered at different times and locations, with different candidates (Schuwirth and van der Vleuten, 2006). An assessment approach may be considered reliable when it yields consistent results regardless of when it is used, who uses it and which item or case is assessed . The grandness of a specific type of reliability depends upon what is being assessed and the method by which it is being assessed. Generally speaking, the reliability or generalisability coefficient since there is multiple potential sources of variability in this assessment tool of 0.8 or higher are delectable (Shea and Fortna, 2002). Since the LAP has its roots in the long case and considering that it has evolved as a modified observed long case the author will attempt to address how the deficiencies in reliability of long cases were addressed to make it a LAP. Attempts to improve the reliability of the long case and make it into an effective LAP fall into three categories. First, studies have considered how some(prenominal) additional long cases would be required, with Kroboth et al (1992) suggesting that 6-10 long cases (each of 1-1.5 h) would achieve a generalisability coefficient of 0.8. Thus it would take a minimum of 4 different cases with at least 2 assessors in each to b e reliable and therefore, careful sampling of representative cases with the use of blueprints is of paramount importance (Cangelosi, 1990).Second, commentators have attempted to increase the number of long cases, but have done so by employing a format that draws on shorter assessments (20-45 min) and multiple cases (4-6) assessed directly after each other in a single session (McKinley et al, 2000 Wass Jolly, 2001 Hamdy et al, 2003 Norcini et al, 2003). Third, elements of the discussion and questioning aspects of the long case have been standardised in an attempt to improve reliability and student perceptions of fairness (Olson et al, 2000). Thus, having all relevant domains and teeming numbers would increase the reliability and validity of the instrument. All these are incorporated in LAP and modified LAP to make a reliable instrument. This is further demonstrated by McKinley et al that the required levels of reliability can be achieved when the modified LAP is used by multiple ma rkers in assessing the same consultation, that is, the package produces inter-assessor reliability. Their generalizability analysis indicates that two independent assessors assessing the performance of students across six consultations would achieve a reliability of 094 in making pass or fail decisions. Also in this study ninety-eight percent of students comprehend that their particular strengths and weaknesses were correctly identified, 99% that they were given specific advice on how to improve their performance and 98% believed that the feedback they had received would have long-term benefit(McKinley, Fraser, Vleuten and Hastings, 2000). The example of assessment criteria and guidelines of the modified LAP used in the study are incorporated as Appendix 4 and 5.Reliability of the LAP would not be severely threatened if the details of the test items have leaked out to the candidates unintentionally. However, it might if they have seen this patient before in the clinical setting. Th ere were chances of this misadventure as the same banks of patients were used. This has been rectified by updating the bank and recruiting different patients. Broad sampling across cases is inwrought to assess clinical competence reliably (Wass and Vleuten, 2004).Feasibility The design and running of the modified LAP has probative resource implications. The crux of the issue for this kind of assessment is feasibility and cost effectiveness in terms of finance, space and manpower. Lots of time and sudor are required to prepare and administer the instrument with high quality. Recruiting enough assessors, real patients, simulated patients in case of psychiatry and the equipment is always a huge challenge. purpose the trained assessors, who mostly tend to be busy clinicians, to take time from their heavy work schedule is also a challenge. However, lots of these issues can be overcome if this test is administered regularly i.e. sequential testing. This is further helped by having a database for the patients and assessors. Good advanced planning will also go a long way.Acceptability John B Cookson, et al. (2008), in a letter to the BMJ, say that feedback from students who have faced this examination in Leicester for the past 9 years strongly indicate that it is perceived as a fair and unimpeachable test of their abilities. From the organizational point of view it has been acceptable because of sequential testing. There is a healthy debate about permutation this with OSCEs or at least use OSCEs to supplement this for the assessment of clinical based practice.Educational Impact From the students point of view, the high-stakes LAP certainly exerts a great educational impact. The outcome of the examination will be used to decide the fate of the students. The LAP provides a platform for students to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours in a single direct observational setting. Among other advantages it encourages students to develop the essential links between history, physical examination, diagnosis and management in each clinical challenge as the consultation progresses, not at some remote point thereafter. This is true as they practise for these exams in this way with peer group or supervision. It definitely has a huge educational impact as the students keep the final assessment in reason and practice the required domains in a structured way from various colleagues and peers. The impact is even greater in some medical schools like WMS as the feedback is given to the students in the formative intermediate exams. This enables the students to reflect on their performance and improve upon them.4. STANDARDS The Standards can be criterion-referenced (absolute standard) or peer-referenced (relative standard). Borderline approach , fixed percentage , Angoffs and Hofstee methods are but a few of the many methods described in the literature for standard-setting (Norcini, 2003). Livingstone and Zieky (1989) proposed th at the higher the stakes of the assessment, the greater the meaning in using criterion-referenced standards. Thus criterion referenced can be used for LAP in the setting of high stakes exams like final professional exams in WMS or postgraduate exit exams taste It is impractical to combine all of the learning outcomes into a single, summative assessment. On a practical note one has to be careful while allotting the students and examiners for the different station/patients/item so that they get a blanket(a) variety of sampling that gives a different case mix. Thus, it also needs to be made sure that they are observed and examined by different examiners to increase the sampling.Thus a careful and effective blueprinting should be done to make LAP a high utility instrument. Moreover, qualitative triangulation of evidence sampling from different sources such as satisfactory performance in each block, including other types of exams likes OSCE for practical skills will further improve the reliability (Stern, et al., 2003).6. riseEvidence from a single point is not sufficiently generalisable to be extrapolated to all do (PMETB, 2007). Studies regarding validity and reliability are costly and difficult to design. Triangulation is an excellent solution to critique the evidence collated qualitatively, where evidence from at least 3 occasions/ resources indicating the same outcome is analyzed (PMETB, 2007). Each LAP item should be treated independently, as an entity of its own, and, although literature can prove LAP do possess the potential to be highly valid and reliable, such study would need to be conducted on separate occasions to demonstrate convincing evidence. This is continuous ongoing process at most of the institutions including WMS.7. LEVELIt is suggested that using the LAP for direct observation of the consultation would be a useful tool to assess whether the student has successfully acquired the undeniable competencies expected at the end of undergraduate or postgraduate training. One of the interesting components is to attempt to judge the overall relationship with the patient. Attitudes are most likely to be conveyed to the patient through the doctors behaviour and should, therefore, be assessed by the observation of behaviours in the clinical setting (REZLER, 1976). Nevertheless, this approach relies on judgements, made by experts, of non-standardised material and is, therefore, open to question. Because professionalism is a complex construct, it is unlikely that a single assessment will adequately measure it even though this assessment makes the attempt. Systematic assessment of professionalism should also include many different assessors, more than one assessment method and assessment in different settings (Lynch, et al., 2004). Hence, these assessments are a continuous process throughout the MBChB and, indeed, afterwards. In consequence the LAP, as an assessment tool, is close to competency based assessment and demonstrates s hows how in the Miller triangle.CONCLUSIONSLong cases on their own have been criticised for poor reliability of examiner assessments and the lack of direct observation by the examiner of the trainee patient encounter reducing the validity of the assessments.There is evidence that adding an observing examiner to the history and physical examination part of the long case assessment increases reliability and helps to reconcile the complex interactions between the context and the skills/knowledge (construct) that the long case attempts to measure (Wass and Jolly, 2001).The LAP is one such tool where there is observation during history and physical examination and structured assessment and proves to be of high utility. This is supported by some studies in the formative setting(McKinley, Fraser, Vleuten and Hastings, 2000)The LAP, when analysed via its properties, is a untroubled tool to assess observed clinical practice. It might not be so effective for practical skills and, for these, it probably needs to be supplemented by work based assessments or even OSCEs.When supplemented with other assessment tools Triangulation LAPs can be used effectively for summative assessment in high stake assessments such as the final examinations for medical students.The main drawbacks are feasibility, difficulty in blue-printing and cost effectiveness.It encourages students to develop the essential skills together rather than combining them afterwards.REFERENCES Bhakta, B., Tennant, A., Horton, M., Lawton, G. and Andrich, D. (2005) Using item response theory to explore the psychometric properties of extended matching questions examination in undergraduate medical education. BMC Medical Education, 5 (1) 9.Fraser, R. C., McKinley, R. K. and Mulholland, H. (1994) Consultation competence in general practice establishing the face validity of prioritized criteria in the Leicester assessment package.see comment. British Journal of General Practice, 44 (380) 109-113.Gleeson, F. (1997) AME E Medical Education Guide No. 9. Assessment of clinical competence using the objective structured long examination record (OSLER). Medical Teacher, 19 (1) 7-14.J. Mason, C. O. K. A. M. A. H. A. B. R. J. Y. (1999) A systematic review of foot ulcer in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. I prevention. Diabetic Medicine, 16 (10) 801-812.Lau, J. K. C., Fraser, R. C. and Lam, C. L. K. (2003) Establishing the content validity in Hong Kong of the prioritised criteria of consultation competence in the Leicester Assessment Package (LAP). Hong Kong Practitioner, 25 (12) 596-602.Lynch, D. C., Surdyk, P. M. and Eiser, A. R. (2004) Assessing professionalism a review of the literature. Medical teacher, 26 (4) 366-373.McKinley, R. K., Fraser, R. C., Vleuten, C. v. d. and Hastings, A. M. (2000) Formative assessment of the consultation performance of medical students in the setting of general practice using a modified version of the Leicester Assessment Package. Medical Education, 34 (7) 573-579. Norcini, J. J. (2002) The finale of the long case? BMJ, 324 (7334) 408-409.Norcini, J. J. (2003) Setting standards on educational tests. Medical Education, 37 (5) 464-469.Redsell, S. A., Hastings, A. M., Cheater, F. M. and Fraser, R. C. (2003) Devising and establishing the face and content validity of explicit criteria of consultation competence in UK primary care nurses. Nurse Education Today, 23 (4) 299-306.REZLER, A. G. (1976) Methods of attitude assessment for medical teachers. Medical Education, 10 (1) 43-51.Shea, J. A. and Fortna, G. S. (2002) 3 Psychometric Methods. global handbook of research in medical education, 97.Stern, D. T., Wojtczak, A. and Schwarz, M. R. (2003) The assessment of global minimum essential requirements in medical education. Medical Teacher, 25 (6) 589-595.Teoh, N. C. and Bowden, F. J. (2008) The case for resurrecting the long case. BMJ, 336 (7655) 1250.Turnbull, J., Turnbull, J., Jacob, P., Brown, J., Duplessis, M. and Rivest, J. (2005) Contextual Con siderations in Summative Competency Examinations Relevance to the Long Case. schoolman Medicine, 80 (12)Wass, V. and Jolly, B. (2001) Does observation add to the validity of the long case? Medical Education, 35 (8) 729-734.Wass, V., Van der Vleuten, C., Shatzer, J. and Jones, R. (2001) Assessment of clinical competence. The Lancet, 357 (9260) 945-949.Wass, V. and Vleuten, C. v. d. (2004) The long case. Medical Education, 38 (11) 1176-1180.APPENDIX 1-PROPOSED ITEM AN OBSERVED MODIFIED LONG CASECONTEXT- undermentioned Continued Medical Education day for Diabetes Specialist Registrars-SPRsCME Appendix 2Aimed at senior SPR that is year 4-5 just a year before termination of their trainingFormative AssessmentCan be used in their portfolios for Continued Professional Development CPDGeneric skills assessed- Communication, Professionalism, Clinical reasoning in uncertain environment, Teamwork and Multidisciplinary ApproachAssessment involves 4 items of observed long modified long cases an d MCQ-paper aiming mainly at knowledge base. One such item an observed modified long case has been described below.Expected learning outcomes for this formative assessment item-Able to assess vascular, neurological status of foot and in a patient with diabetesDiagnose pedal pathologies in the